@article {Arntfielde045120,
	title = {Development of a convolutional neural network to differentiate among the etiology of similar appearing pathological B lines on lung ultrasound: a deep learning study},
	journal = {BMJ Open},
	volume = {11},
	number = {3},
	year = {2021},
	publisher = {British Medical Journal Publishing Group},
	abstract = {Objectives Lung ultrasound (LUS) is a portable, low-cost respiratory imaging tool but is challenged by user dependence and lack of diagnostic specificity. It is unknown whether the advantages of LUS implementation could be paired with deep learning (DL) techniques to match or exceed human-level, diagnostic specificity among similar appearing, pathological LUS images.Design A convolutional neural network (CNN) was trained on LUS images with B lines of different aetiologies. CNN diagnostic performance, as validated using a 10\% data holdback set, was compared with surveyed LUS-competent physicians.Setting Two tertiary Canadian hospitals.Participants 612 LUS videos (121 381 frames) of B lines from 243 distinct patients with either (1) COVID-19 (COVID), non-COVID acute respiratory distress syndrome (NCOVID) or (3) hydrostatic pulmonary edema (HPE).Results The trained CNN performance on the independent dataset showed an ability to discriminate between COVID (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) 1.0), NCOVID (AUC 0.934) and HPE (AUC 1.0) pathologies. This was significantly better than physician ability (AUCs of 0.697, 0.704, 0.967 for the COVID, NCOVID and HPE classes, respectively), p\&lt;0.01.Conclusions A DL model can distinguish similar appearing LUS pathology, including COVID-19, that cannot be distinguished by humans. The performance gap between humans and the model suggests that subvisible biomarkers within ultrasound images could exist and multicentre research is merited.},
	issn = {2044-6055},
	doi = {10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045120},
	url = {https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/3/e045120},
	author = {Arntfield, Robert and VanBerlo, Blake and Alaifan, Thamer and Phelps, Nathan and White, Matthew and Chaudhary, Rushil and Ho, Jordan and Wu, Derek}
}
