H.H. Helmstaedt. W.A. Gorman & S.L. McBride, Department of Geological Sciences, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7L 3N6
With proper acknowledgement all diagrams may be reproduced for teaching purposes.
Introduction
The Frontenac Axis is a SE-trending arch of Proterozoic crystalline basement, part of the Grenville Province of the Canadian Shield, that connects the Algonquin Dome with the Adirondack Dome in New York (Figure 1). To the northeast and southwest, respectively, it is flanked by Flat-lying to gently dipping Cambro-Ordovicain sediments of the St. Lawrence Platform and the Lake Ontario Homocline. It forms a resistant bedrock sill over which the St. Lawrence River flows northeastward from Lake Ontario, creating the "Thousand Islands", a region well known to tourists and smugglers along the international border.
This one-day field trip, on the southwest flank of the "Axis" (Figure 2), was designed as part of the 1987 International Basement Tectonics Conference. The stops have been chosen to illustrate a broad range of geological features and to highlight tectonic reactivation of the basement during and following deposition of the Cambro-Ordovician cover.
Geological setting
Table 1 summarizes the major rock units of the Kingston area.
The basement rocks of the Frontenac Axis are predominantly a metaquartzite-metashale-marble sequence. During the Grenvillian Mountain-Building Cycle, which culminated about 1080 million years ago, this sequence was extensively deformed, intruded by concordant plutons (parallel to the structure), and strongly metamorphosed. A swarm of mafic dykes that strikes NW along the crest of the arch, dated at about 900 Ma, is cut by finer-grained, plagioclase-porphyritic dykes, dated at about 575 Ma.
The cover sequence near Kingston, part of the Lake Ontario Homocline, dips to the south at about 5 m per km. Cambro-Ordovician conglomerate and sandstone of the Potsdam Group range from zero to about 30 meters thick, evidently having been deposited on an erosion surface of considerable relief. The Shadow Lake Formation comprises zero to about 8 m of grit and greenish to reddish siltstone and is of Middle Ordovician (Black Riveran) age. It is deposited on a surface that is generally much flatter, but it is pierced by local monadnocks of granite or metaquartzite up to 50 m high. The Gull River Formation, predominantly micritic limestone, is also of Black Riveran age. It is normally about 72 m thick, but the lower few tens of meters are missing where basement Precambrian hills are present.
Basement and cover are cut by numerous post-metamorphic faults (Figure 3). The Lake Ontario Homocline is cut by a set of NE-striking dip-slip faults with movements of up to 50m. Two small mafic dykes of Jurassic age provide the only precise clue to their possible age. The cover sequence is also cut by NW-striking dip-slip faults, which may be associated with the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben, and by NW-striking veins containing calcite, barite, celestite, fluorite, pyrite, galena, and sphalerite.
The oldest of the unconsolidated deposits is a thin and discontinuous glacial till, a product of the Wisconsin ice-sheet, which was at its maximum extent about 22,000 to 18,000 years ago. The till is overlain locally by glacial outwash deposits, which provide a source of sand and gravel. Much of the better farmland is developed on varved silt, which was deposited in a periglacial lake whose strand-lines project about 170 m above the present level of Lake Ontario at Kingston. Known as Glacial Lake Iroquois, it was ponded against the receding Wisconsin ice-sheet to the NE, and it drained south of the Adirondacks via the Mohawk and Hudson valleys, emptying into the Atlantic at the present site of New York City.
Road log
Departure from packing lot of Department of Geological Sciences, behind Miller Hall.
Km
0.0 Miller Hall turn left (east) on Union Street, proceed past Frontenac County.
Court House to Lower Union, turn left on King Street.
1.3 Market Square
On left, former Bowen Bakery (new Block & Cleaver) of family of Normal L. Bowen, most famous graduate of Geology Department of Queen’s University, and Professor of Mineralogy, 1918-1919.
Proceed to Princess Street, turn right (south), and turn left (east) on Ontario Street.
1.9 Site of Fort Frontenac, founded in 1673 by Sieur de La Salle. The fort was probably the first limestone building in Ontario.
2.1 Causeway across Cataraqui River.
3.1 Traffic light. Road to south leads to Royal Military College and Fort Henry. You can park here at the Tourist information Centre and Walk to Stop 1.
3.4 Stop 1 roadcut, highway #2, Barriefield
Gentle anticlinal fold in limestones of Gull Fiver Formation (Fig. 4) of Middle Ordovician (Black Riveran) age. Precambrian quartzite, exposed in the core of the fold, is overlain by Gull River limestone. The Prominent C-marker, which yielded some of the best building stone from quarries in the Kingston area, is well displayed in the eastern part of the outcrop and is at road level on the south side of the road approximately 8 m from the east end of the cut.
It is not clear that this and numerous other folds of this type are entirely of supratenuous origin (folds which thicken towards the syncline because the basin subsided during sedimentation). The present dip of the limestone is in all cases greater than the initial dip, the difference being due either to rotation, compaction, or solution. Local tensional faults (for location see Fig. 4) and pressure solution features (stylolites) oblique to bedding (best exposed on the south side of the road in a massive grey limestone bed beneath the C-marker approximately 48 m from the east edge of the outcrop), suggest that some of the rotation and pressure solution may be of tectonic origin.
3.7 Proceed up the hill and turn left (north) onto Highway #15.
4.3 Gentle anticline in roadcut on right exposes the C-marker below which is a bed with numerous cavities (vugs) filled with calcite (CaCO3) and celestite (SrSO4). About 21 m of Black Riveran strata, including about 8 m of basal grits and silts, is missing due to non-deposition on the crest of this Precambrian hill.
6.5 Entrance to limestone quarry on left. Formerly quarried for building stone, the limestone is now used mainly for road metal and aggregate for concrete.
8.4 Note large glacially transported (erratic) boulder of garnet-bearing gneiss on right (east) side of road.
10.4 Junction of Highways #15 and #401. Turn left onto entrance ramp leading to westbound lanes of 401.
10.7 Stop 2 highway #401 roadcut
Pull over to right on parking lane of entrance ramp. Carefully cross entrance lane and walk southward to top of roadcut. Please keep well clear of the highway!!
Roadcut exposes limestones of the Gull River Formation (at west end of outcrop) unconformably lapping onto Precambrian basement. Coarse-grained syenite is intruded by irregularly-shaped bodies of fine-grained Rockport-type granite and by pegmatite veins and lenses. All three rock types are foliated, the foliation striking NE and being more or less vertical. The pinkish-grey syenite consists mainly of K-Na feldspar with small amounts of pyroxene, hornblende, biotite, and traces of quartz, sphene, zircon, apatite, and opaque minerals. Near the eastern end of the outcrop, the syenite is intruded by a 16-m-wide, steeply east-dipping diabase dyke, one of the set of dykes that strikes NW along the crest of the Frontenac Arch. This dyke consists of plagioclase with approximately 30% pyroxene and 10% olivine (altered to serpentine) and accessory biotite, apatite, and opaque oxides. At the unconformity, syenite is overlain by a boulder conglomerate succeeded by Gull River beds about 15 m above the base of the full Black Riveran section. Note the bleached margins of the reddish syenite boulders in the conglomerate. The basal clastics corresponds to the "Rideau beds" of Baker (1916), whose type section is 1 km NW of here, and to the Shadow Lake Formation of Liberty (1970).
Enter Highway #401 westbound. Highway bridge crosses Cataraqui River, which is part of the Rideau Canal system. Hill on your right (north) is a partially exhumed Precambrian hill, transected by a late NE-trending fault with a throw of about 10 m, NW-side-down.
14.5 Take Montreal Street Exit from Highway #401.
Roadcut exposes the middle part of the Gull River Formation, the C-marker being readily recognizable.
14.8 Take the Montreal Road Exit, and turn left (north) on Montreal Road.
16.0 Turn right (east) on Kingston Mills Road.
17.9 Precambrian granite is exposed at Kingston Mills Lock on the Rideau Canal. Glacially polished surfaces show spectacular glacial grooves. Type section of Rideau beds (Baker, 1916), is in a rock-cut to the west along the CNR railway tracks.
20.2 Turn left (north) on Highway #15.
22.5 Note Precambrian rocks on roadcut on east side of road.
23.2 Isle of Man Road. Roadcut west on High #15 exposes Precambrian paragneiss.
24.2 Hughes Road. Spectacular columnar structures can be seen at the end of this road in sandstone of the Nepean Formation (Potsdam Group, Cambrian age). ("Park of Pillars", with entrance through farmyard of Mr. Hughes.)
28.3 Joyceville. Exposure of unconformity between Nepean Formation and Precambrian rocks on east side of road.
29.8 Exposures of Precambrian syenite.
30.6 Sand Hill Road. Gravel pits between 1 and 3 km east of Highway #15 expose Pleistocene outwash deposits (Henderson, 1967).
34.2 Stop 3 Sunbury road and highway #15
Leave car on right shoulder of Highway #15 at road junction, and walk about 100 m to north along the shoulder to roadcut or marble.
White marble with angular fragments of rusty-weathering paragneiss. The coarse-grained marble contains small flakes of biotite and graphite, and the gneiss fragments have rims consisting mainly of diopside, feldspar, and quartz. Wollastonite has not been found in this outcrip, though rare occurrences of this mineral are known in the area. This rock may be considered as a tectonic breccia consisting of broken-up fragments of relatively competent gneiss included in a much more ductile matrix of marble which recrystallized during and/or after deformation. Note the gently dipping, crudely developed gneissic layering which is folded by upright second folds.
Turn west onto Sunbury Road.
34.6 Stop 3A Sunbury road
West end of roadcut on north side of road, just before bridge across Rideau Canal.
Outcrop of quartzitic gneiss with garnet, K-feldspar, plagioclase, magnetite, and traces of tourmaline, intruded by pegmatite with apatite and intergrowths of quartz-tourmaline. The rusty colour of the gneiss is due to weathering of iron sulphide. Garnet is fine grained. The gneissosity is nearly verticle and trends NE. A shallow north-plunging lineation (1.2) can be observed on the foliation surface.
34.7 Bridge over Rideau Canal
35.2 Roadcuts of hematite-stained sandstone and conglomerates of the Nepean Formation.
36.5 Roadcut of Nepean Formation (south side of road) with quartz pebble conglomerate at base.
38.2 Stop 4 Nepean formation outcrop
Walk south on small overgrown path (approx. 100 m) to large flat, glacially polished outcrop of Nepean Formation.
This outcrop exposes facies 2 of the Nepean FormationL Sandstone with very large-scale cross-beds. The well-sorted, medium-grained quartz sandstone is characterized by very large, simple cross beds thought to be indicative of an eolian deposit. The presence of numerous coarse, angular boulders of Precambrian metaquartzite and feldspathic quartzite (some concentrated in layers and some completely isolated) suggests that dunes developed beneath a steep cliff of Precambrian metaquartzite (‘curtain dunes’), remnants of which is preserved approximately 200 m east of this locality. Note the blue colour of the quartz, caused by exsolution of very fine needles of rutile in this granulite-facies metaquartzite. Small anastomosing (interconnecting) ‘shear zones’ in the northern part of the outcrop trend approximately 080 degrees and may represent synsedimentary faults (formed at the time of sedimentation).
The outcrop shows two sets of glacial striae, the older trending 220 degrees, the younger trending 210 degrees and cutting off the older set where the ice moved uphill (best seen east side of the outcrop). Chattermarks indicate that the ice causing the younger set moved to the southwest. Remnants of subglacial pot holes and fluting by subglacial streams can be observed (the latter is best seen in the southern part of the outcrop). Remnants of calcite-cemented Pleistocene gravel are preserved on sandstone in the southern part of the outcrop. An irregular set of steep fractures in the sandstone strikes between 020 and 030 degrees. Another irregular set of rust-stained fractures strikes approximately 145 degrees and shows some post-Pleistocene movement, but is is not certain whether this is of tectonic origin or due to frost heaving.
38.4 Roadcut on southside exposes moderately east-dipping Precambrian metaquartzite. This now relatively low cliff may have provided the metaquartzite blocks observed in the curtain dunes of Stop 4.
Stop 4A variety of rock types
39.8 Roadcut on north side shows white Precambrian granite with some syenite intruded by a NNW striking diabase dyke. The dyke has well-developed chilled margins in which coarse tabular plagioclase phenocrysts can be recognized. The dyke is locally sheared and cut by veins of fibrous calcite, serpentine, and quartz. The large dyke is cut by a 15-cm-wide dyke trending 130 degrees. The granite on the east side of the outcrop contains skarn inclusions, and a layer of calcareous gneiss in white pegmatite can be observed at the western edge of the outcrop.
40.0 Gravel pit on south side of road contains glacial outwash deposits with large cross beds. Small outcrops along road are Nepean Formation.
42.6 Note limestone and dolostone (dolomite) church (St. John’s) on north side of road.
45.0 At stop sign turn left (south) into Sunbury.
45.4 Turn right (west) on Gounty Road #12 towards Inverary.
46.2 Roadcuts are in limestones of Gull River formation.
46.6 Descend into glacial outwash channel.
48.4 Marble outcrops (part of Stop 5).
48.8 Stop 5 unconformity
Leave car beside old limestone quarry and walk back along road (downhill) to east end of roadcut outcrop.
Moderately west-dipping Precambrian quartzites and paragneisses with mafic dykes and sills are unconformably overlain by fine pebble conglomerate and limy sandstone of the Shadow Lake Formation which, in turn, is overlain by limestone of the Gull River Formation. This very flat erosion surface is typical of exposures where the full thickness of Black Riveran strata is present. Coarse marble with white pegmatite can be seen at the west end of the roadcut.
49.8 Turn right (north) at stop sign onto Perth Road. Proceed north through village of Inverary.
52.3 Descend small limestone escarpment. Exposures in roadcut are probably about 30 m above the base of the Black Riveran. Lower ground ahead is underlain by Precambrian rocks.
53.7 Loughborough Lake. Possible lunch stop.
54.0 Stop 6 Loughborough Lake
Roadcut north of Loughborough Lake bridge. Either walk from parking lot at boat launch south of bridge, or pull car well off road.
Roadcut exposes layered clinopyroxene gneiss with two generations of mafic dykes. Dykes of the older generation are fine grained, have a northeasterly strike, and dips ranging from nearly horizontral to vertical. They have a metamorphic mineral assemblage consisting of hornblende, plagioclase, and biotite with some K-feldspar, opaques, and sphene. Some of these dykes have been intruded by pegmatites and are boundinaged and faulted. Secondary epidote alteration is common. A 5-m-wide dyke of medium-grained diabase belongs to the northeasterly striking Rideau swarm of the Frontenac Axis. It consists of slightly altered clinopyroxene and plagioclase which, in thin section, show fine zones of cataclastic deformation. Several faults in the south-eastern part of the roadcut are approximately parallel to the gneissic layering (210/75 NW). They are coated with epidote and show steeply-plunging striations. Minor displacements of a horizontal, approximately 20-cm-wide dyke of the older generation indicate that the southeast side moved down. It is probably that these displacements are related to late reactivation on a NE-striking Precambrian fault along Loughborough Lake.
Gently plunging folds of gneissose layering can be observed north of the diabase dyke. In the northern part of the outcrop, Precambrian rocks are unconformably overlain, on a very flat erosion surface, by basal sandstones of the Shadow Lake Formation. Projection of this erosion surface to the south suggests about 20 m of south-side-down dip-slip displacement on the Loughborough Lake Fault.
54.7 Note unconformity of basal sandstones in cut at the base of Precambrian knoll on right side of road, which was evidently small hill on the Black Riveran erosion surface.
54.9 Junction of Frontenac county Road #5. Proceed north on Perth Road. Entering Perth Road Pluton.
58.4 Stop 7 Perth road pluton
Northwestern margin of Perth Road pluton. Stop at low roadcuts on east side of road.
This dominantly granitic pluton is one of nine discrete intrusive bodies designated as Frontenac type by Wynne-Edwards (1963, 1967b). The lenticular body was intruded while deformation was occuring into the crest of a domical structure within surrounding pyroxene gneiss and biotite-quartz-feldspar gneiss (Ermanovics, 1967). The pluton is crudely zones, grading from a darker, dioritic core into a quartz-rich, granitic margin. Locally a narrow sheared zone is developed along the margins.
At this locality, the medium-to coarse-grained, reddish-granite-like rock consists of oligoclase, K-feldspar, biotite and quartz. A weakly developed tectonic foliation is parallel to the margin of the pluton. The relationship of this fabric to the sheared zone north of the pluton is unclear. Narrow shear zones and a number of thin seams of severely crushed rock, however, appear to be related to the formation of the sheared zone.
58.8 Stop 8 Southern margin of Perth road sheared (mylonite) zone
Walk from here north through sheared zone to Perth Road village.
This mylonite zone is part of a NE-striking shear zone, at least 30 km long, that traverses the Frontenac Axis between Sydenham Lake in the southwest and Chaffey’s Lock in the north-east. Mylonites are best developed in paragneiss within a lozenge-shape zone, approximately 10 km long and up to 1.2 km wide, between the Perth Road pluton in the southeast and an extensive marble unit in the northwest. According to Ermanovics (1967), the northwestern extension of the zone is a fault, but it is not certain whether this fault formed as brittle continuation of the mylonite-producing event or represents a later fault localized along the earlier formed mylonite zone (Barclay, 1985). Paleozoic rocks on either side of the axis do not appear to be affected by the fault. The mylonites contain minerals formed during low grade metamorphism, indicating that mylonitization postdates the peak of the severe regional metamorphism and the imposition of a regional gneissosity (Ermanovics, 1967). An excellent example of the truncation of this gneissosity by the mylonitic planar fabric can be seen in a separate roadcut outcrop on the eastern side of the road, just south of the road sign of Perth Road. Marbles at the northwestern margin of the zone include tectonic fragments of mylonitized quartzofeldspathic rocks but are themselves coarsely recrystalized and show no relics of cataclastic deformation textures (Barclay, 1985).
On our traverse through the mylonite zone from south to north, note the irregular distribution and width of anastomosing bands of intense mylonitization in the paragneiss. Where pegmatitic granite is affected by mylonitization, all stages from very slight to very severe can be observed. Mylonitic foliation strikes generally northeast and dips steeply to the northwest. A steeply-plunging extension lineation can be recognized on the mylonitic foliation planes.
Asymmetric folds of the mylonitic foliation are most spectacular north of the road sign of Perth Road Village. Many of these have the form of sheath folds, as described by Rannie (1973), and some show refolding of the foliation. Several stages of development of mylonitic foliation are indicated by the fact that folds of mylonitic foliation are locally enveloped by a cross-cutting later foliation.
According to Barclay (1985), the distribution of mylonitic foliation and discrete mylonite bands varies non-uniformly throughout the zone. The orientation and sense of transport directions determined from various kinds of indicators vary considerably. Movement has been predominantly oblique slip, but the stretching direction varies from nearly horizontal to vertical. Relative movement between adjacent blocks along specific shear planes was in some places northwest-side-down and to the northeast; in other places, movement was northwest-side-up and to the southwest. The asymmetry of the spectacular folds in Perth Road Village suggests that the northwest side moved up.
A 2-m-wide ultramafic dyke at the northern end of the Perth Road Village cut, consisting of clinopyroxene, biotite, green hornblende, and minor calcite, has not been affected by the mylonitization. The medium-grained dyke strikes more or less parallel to the foliation (030), but dips approximately 30 degrees to the northwest, cross-cutting the steeply dipping foliation.
A small outlier of Shadow Lake grit is preserved above the folded mylonites in Perth Road Village (east side of road) on the down-throw side of a late, NW-striking fault which cuts the mylonite zone and down-drops the northeastern block about 15 m.
Return to vehicle and proceed north on Perth Road.
59.3 Perth Road Village. Turn around and return south on Perth Road.
63.8 Turn right (west) on County Road #5 towards Sydenham.
73.2 Roadcut in limestone of Gull River Formation.
73.8 School in Sydenham.
75.8 Turn right (north) on Desert Lake Road.
77.5 Stop 9 valley of canoe lake fault
The Canoe Lake Fault (Fig. 7) is an example of a Precambrian fault zone which was reactivated during the Phanerozoic. It has been traced for about 100 km from Paleozoic rocks near Odessa Lake, 18 km northwest of Kingston, through the Precambrian rocks of the Frontenac Axis (through Knowlton Lake, Holleford Lake, Desert Lake, Canoe Lake, Wolfe Lake, and the Rideau Lakes), into Paleozoic rocks near Smith Falls, on the northeastern side of the axis (Fig. 1). The northeastern end of this fault, known as the Rideau Lake Fault (Wynne-Edwards, 1967a), was first recognized by Kay (1942). Within the Precambrian rocks the fault is marked by a topographically recessive zone of shearing and brecciation up to 1.2 km wide. The pre-Paleozoic displacement is not known with certainty, but several contacts that may be correlative show a right-hand strike separation of about 12 km.
In post-Black Riveran time, the fault was reactivated as a "scissors-fault". At the northeastern end of the fault the Paleozoic rocks are down-dropped on the southeast side whereas at the southwest end of the fault, the west side has moved down (Jamieson, 1961) (Fig. 8). On either side of the fault in this vicinity, Black Riveran strate rest directly on Precambrian basement. However, along the valley of the fault 5-7 km north of here, there are outliers of Nepean sandstone up to 20 m thick, indicating that the fault was already topographically recessive during deposition of the Potsdam Group.
At this locality the valley of the fault is filled with glacial outwash deposits of Pleistocene age.
79.4 Sharp turn to left.
80.6 Turn to right (towards Holleford). Gravel pit on left (west) and limestone cliffs on right (east.).
82.2 Top of Hill, view to NNW of Holleford impact crater.
82.3 Turn left (west) at Crater Farm and proceed through southern rim of crater.
83.2 Stop 10 Holleford Crater (Figure 9)
View of crater from southwestern rim. Walk through gate onto meadow north of road to large basswood tree.
The circular topographic depression in front of you is approximately 30 m deep and has a diameter of nearly 2 km. It is caused by arcuate outcrops of limestones of the Middle Ordovician Gull River Formation that dip gently towards the center of the depression (Fig. 14). After noting this feature on air photographs in 1955, scientists of the Dominion Observatory proposed that is might represent a meteor crater formed on the Precambrian land surface prior to the transgression of the Paleozoic sea. This hypothesis was confirmed by three holes drilled in 1956-57 that encountered intensely brecciated Precambrian rocks containing the high-pressure mineral coesite (Bunch and Cohen, 1963). The drill holes showed that the crater, approximately 300 m deep, was filled with about 200 m of lacustrine sediments prior to deposition of the Gull River Formation (Sawford, 1964; St. Joh, 1968). The lacustrine sedimentary rocks are apparently restricted to the crater, and their relationship to the sandstones and conglomerates of the Nepean Formation is unclear. The inward dip of the limestones at the present erosion surface is thought to have resulted from the compaction of the lacustrine sediments.
Proceed west towards Hartington.
87.3 Corner of Holleford Road and Highway #38 in Hartington. Turn right (north) on Highway #38.
89.1 Roadcut of Shadow Lake Formation and overlying lower parts is typical of the Gull River Formation on left (west) side of road. This exposure is typical of the basal Black Riveran strata wherever the section is complete.
89.3 Stromatolites in Gull River limestone on west side of road.
89.5 First outcrop of Precambrian rocks (low road cut on right) is a NE-striking diabase dyke (Fig. 2).
90.6 Stop 11 Paleokarst cave
Stop just north of entrance to picnic spot at Portland Conservation Area on right (east) side of road.
Cut on east side of road shows a paleokarst cave in Precambrian marble filled with sandstone breccia of Nepean Formation (Fig. 11). Sandstones with local cross-bedding extend as horizontal ‘tongues’ into the marble. The fact that 1.5 km to the south the Shadow Lake Formation rests directly on Precambrian rocks suggests that, with the exception of this protected outlier, rocks of the Nepean Formation had been eroded in this area prior to the Mid-Ordovician marine transgression (Fig. 12).
91.5 Hardwood Creek, Verona. Turn around and return to Kingston via Highway #38.
97.9 This scarp marks the trace of a NE-striking fault with about 10 m of throw, NW-side-down.
99.1 Enter Harrowsmith.
116.9 Crossing Highways #38 and #401. Outcrops of upper parts of Gull River Formation.
Stop 12 (Optional) fossil collecting in the township quarry
Return to Kingston.
References cited
Baer, A.J., Poole, W.H., Snaford, B.C., 1971. Gatineau River, Map 1334A. Geological Survey of Canada.
Baker, M.B., 1916, Geology of Kingston and vicinity, Ontario Bureau of Mines Report, v. 25.
Barchlay, B., 1985, Deformation within the Perth Road mylonite zone, Frontenac Axis, Grenville Province: a reappraisal, Unpubl. BSc. Thesis, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.
Bunch, T.E., and Cohen,A.J., 1963, Coesite and shocked quartz from Holleford Crater, Ontario, Canada, Science, v. 142, no. 3590, p. 379-381.
Cooper, G.E., 1959, Geology of an area near Verona, Unpub. BSc thesis, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.
Ermanovics, I.F., 1967, Evidence bearing on the origin of the Perth Road pluton, Southern Ontario, PhD thesis, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.
Fahrig, W.F. and West, T.D., 1986, Diabase dyke swarm of the Canadian Shield, Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1627A.
Fisher, D.W., 1982, Cambrian and Ordovician stratigraphy and paleontology of the Champlain valley, in: Field trips guidebook for the Third North American paleontological convention, Que., Canada, A1-A28.
Henderson, E.P., 1967, Surficial geology north of the St. Lawrence River, Kingston to Prescott, In: Geology of parts of eastern Ontario and Western Quebec-Geol. Assoc. Canada, Joint Meeting, Kingston, Ontario, 1967, Guidebook, p. 199-207.
Hewitt, D.F., 1960-1961, Gananoque Area, Map 2054, Ontario Department of Mines.
Hofmann, H.J., 1972, Stratigraphy of the Montreal area, International Geological Congress, Guidebook, No. 24, Part B-03, p. 34.
Jamieson, E.R., 1961, The geology of the Paleozoic rocks in the area south of Knowlton Lake, Frontenac County, Ontario, Unpubl. BSc thesis, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.
Kay, G.M., 1942, Ottawa-Bonnechere graben and Lake Ontario homocline, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., V. 53, no. 4, p. 585-646.
Liberty, B.A., 1967, Paleozoic stratigraphy of the Kingston area, On., in: Geology of parts of eastern Ont., and western Que., Geol. Assoc. Canada, Joint Meeting, Kingston, Ont., Guidebook.