Biology undergraduate courses

BIOL 110 LAB, LEC, TST  0.50

Introductory Zoology

A study of the functional morphology of selected animals with special emphasis on the various grades of organization and development in the different phyla.

BIOL 130 LEC, TST 0.50

Introductory Cell Biology

An introduction to the concepts of cell biology with emphasis on (1) the structural organization of the cell and (2) the function of critical molecular processes that are characteristic of living organisms.

BIOL 130L LAB 0.25

Cell Biology Laboratory

Experiments to study the principles of cell biology that are elaborated in BIOL 130.

BIOL 150 LEC 0.50

Organismal and Evolutionary Ecology

This course provides students with an introduction to the basic principles of Scientific Reasoning, Ecology and Evolution. Coverage includes hypothesis testing and the nature of scientific inquiry, basic population genetics, physiological ecology, life histories, dispersal, basic population and community ecology, macroevolution, systematics and classification, as well as functional morphology.

BIOL 165 LEC 0.50

Diversity of Life

An introduction to the diversity of living organisms from simple prokaryotes to complex eukaryotes. Current ideas on classification and phylogeny will be compared with traditional schemes. Morphology, ecology, and economic uses of representative Phyla and Divisions will be discussed.

BIOL 201 LAB,LEC 0.50

Human Anatomy

This course takes a systems approach to study the structure of the human body and its relationship to function.

BIOL 211 LAB,LEC,TST 0.50

Introductory Vertebrate Zoology

An introduction to the structure, evolution and development of vertebrate organ systems.

BIOL 220 LEC 0.50

Introduction to Plant Structure and Function

An introduction to plant diversity, and the anatomy and physiology of vascular plants. The course will include a description of major cell and tissue types, and their organization in roots, stems, and leaves. Topics such as the processes of water and ion uptake, photosynthesis, long distance transport, and growth regulation will also be covered in lectures and through laboratory experiments.

BIOL 225 LEC 0.50

Plants and Civilization

This course examines the importance of plants and the role they have in the local and global community. It introduces students to the impact of plants on the past, present and future of human civilization and describes the importance of plants as sources of food, medicine, fuel, shelter, clothing and psychoactive agents. Topics include medicinal plants and human health, the origin of agricultural crops, plants that changed the course of history, plant-based biofuels, the green revolution, plant biotechnology and genetic engineering of plants.

BIOL 235 LEC 0.50

Foundations of Molecular Biology

This course introduces fundamental approaches used to study the biomolecules that mediate cellular processes. Topics include the central dogma of molecular biology, the theoretical basis for molecular methods, scientific principles of hypothesis development, and experimental design in molecular biology research. The laboratory will cover essential experimental techniques for analyzing biomolecules (DNA, RNA, and protein).

BIOL 239 LEC,TUT 0.50

Genetics

Mendelian genetics. Chromosomal mechanisms in mitosis and meiosis. The origin, inheritance and adaptive significance of chromosomal changes. Nucleic acids as the carriers of genetic information. Natural selection and the evolution of genetic systems.

BIOL 240 LEC 0.50

Fundamentals of Microbiology

Introduction to the biology of bacterial and archaeal organisms. Topics include cell structure and function, methods of cultivation, genetics, phylogeny and taxonomy, and metabolic and genetic diversity.

BIOL 240L LAB 0.25

Microbiology Laboratory

Experiments to study the principles of microbiology that are elaborated in BIOL 240.

BIOL 241 LAB,LEC 0.50

Introduction to Applied Microbiology

Introduction to microbial ecology, environmental microbiology, food microbiology and medical microbiology. Topics in environmental microbiology include biogeochemical cycling and biological treatment of wastes and pollutants. Topics in medical microbiology include concepts of immunology and host-parasite relationships.

BIOL 251 LAB 0.50

Fundamentals of Ecology

This course provides students with an introduction to the breadth of the ecology discipline, including laboratory and field components. It covers hypothesis testing and the nature of scientific inquiry, organismal, population, community, and ecosystem levels of ecology.

BIOL 266 LAB,LEC 0.50

Introduction to Computational Biology

This course provides an introduction to computational methods in biology, including exploration of bioinformatics databases and tools, analysis of protein and DNA sequences, and computer-aided modelling of biological systems. Labs will include practical experience applying computational tools to biological problems.

BIOL 273 LEC,TST 0.50

Principles of Human Physiology 1

The physiology of major organ systems of the human body. Topics include neurophysiology and peripheral nervous system, muscle, the cardiovascular system, the components of blood, respiratory system and immune system. The combination of BIOL 273 and BIOL 373 covers all of the major topics of human physiology.

BIOL 280 LEC,TUT 0.50

Introduction to Biophysics

Introduction to a physical understanding of biological systems at macro and molecular scales. The course is intended for second-year science and engineering students and will cover a broad spectrum of topics in biophysics, as well as an introduction to neurobiology, nanotechnology, and biotechnology.

BIOL 302 LAB,LEC 0.50

Functional Histology

A hierarchical approach to biological structure with an emphasis on functional morphology. Starting with the cell, the fundamental unit of structure and function, the material progressively develops how cells organize to form tissues such as epithelium, connective tissue and muscle. Emphasis on how these tissue building blocks cooperate to form the major organs and organ systems of the human body.

BIOL 303 LEC 0.50

Introductory Developmental Biology and Embryology

Fundamental processes and concepts in embryonic development including the acquisition of multicellularity, organization of the early embryo, morphogenesis of tissues, major organ systems, fetal membranes, growth, differentiation and analysis of common developmental defects.

BIOL 308 LEC 0.50

Principles of Molecular Biology

Prokaryote and eukaryote genome structure and replication; mechanisms of gene expression and regulation.

BIOL 309 LEC,TUT 0.50

Analytical Methods in Molecular Biology

An introduction to molecular methods used to analyze the structure of genes and genomes, including DNA sequencing, cloning, restriction mapping and bioinformatic tools. Techniques to monitor transcript and protein abundance, protein-protein and DNA-protein interactions will also be covered.

BIOL 310 LAB,LEC 0.50

Invertebrate Zoology

The diversity of invertebrate animals will be explored in this class. Topics covered will include reproduction, development, life history, feeding, locomotion, and behaviour.

BIOL 312 LAB,LEC 0.50

The Natural History of Aquatic Organisms

This course will introduce students to the diversity of freshwater organisms and their habitats. Emphasis will be placed on sampling techniques, taxonomic identification, life histories, and adaptations to aquatic environments. The course will introduce students to the use of aquatic organisms in environmental impact and biodiversity assessments. Students must be prepared to work outdoors in potentially inclement weather.

BIOL 323 LAB,LEC 0.50

Plant Physiology

A study of plant physiological processes with an emphasis on the role of key metabolic pathways in plant growth and development. Topics such as photosynthesis, nitrogen assimilation, growth regulators, mineral nutrition, water relations, and stress physiology will be covered.

BIOL 325 LAB,LEC 0.50

Flowering Plants

A study of floral morphology in relation to classification and evolution. An introduction to taxonomy and nomenclature. History of taxonomy. Systems of classification. Mechanisms of pollination.

BIOL 331 LAB,LEC,TST 0.50

Advanced Cell Biology

The functional organization of cells with particular reference to cell-cell interaction, the structure, function and development of organelles and the biological roles of cellular membranes.

BIOL 335L LAB,TUT 0.50

Molecular Biology Techniques

Selected experiments to provide students with a range of laboratory skills in recombinant DNA technology.

BIOL 341 LAB,LEC 0.50

Fundamentals of Immunology

This course will provide students with an understanding of the fundamental concepts of the vertebrate immune system. Topics will focus on the components of the immune system, innate and adaptive immunity, immune cell development, communication, and recognition of non-self leading to an immune response.

BIOL 342 LEC,TUT 0.50

Molecular Biotechnology 1

Molecular biotechnology applies the principles of recombinant DNA technology (genetic engineering, gene cloning) to the development of commercial products. The methods of recombinant DNA technology, molecular diagnostic systems for detecting diseases and transgenic organisms will be discussed.

BIOL 345 LAB,LEC 0.50

Microorganisms in Foods

Food preservation, spoilage, poisoning and modern concepts in quality assurance programs are studied. The aim is to understand factors governing microbial changes in foods. Problem solving in the food industry is emphasized. Laboratory work will reflect current practices in quality control and testing.

BIOL 346 LAB,LEC 0.50

Microbial Ecology and Diversity

Examples from terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and plant- and animal-associated environments, will be used to illustrate the activities and diversity of microorganisms in these habitats. The importance of the ecological roles of microbes to aspects of agriculture, geochemistry, human biology, and the biology of extreme environments will be considered.

BIOL 348L LAB,TUT 0.50

Laboratory Methods in Microbiology

Selected experiments to provide students with a range of laboratory skills in microbiology.

BIOL 349 PRJ,TUT 0.50

Synthetic Biology Project Design

Synthetic biology involves developing new approaches, based on engineering principles, for genetic engineering of biological systems. Students will prepare a comprehensive research proposal for a synthetic biology project of their own design, under the supervision of a faculty member. Attendance at a weekly journal club focused on synthetic biology will be mandatory

BIOL 350 LEC,TUT 0.50

Ecosystem Ecology

This course provides an overview of the dynamic interactions among microbes, plants, animals and their physical environment with emphasis on ecosystem structure and function. Topics include the hydrological cycle, biogeochemical cycling, ecological energetics, roles of population and community interactions, paleoecology and current topics in ecosystem science.

BIOL 351 LEC 0.50

Aquatic Ecology

Study of the structure and function of lake and stream ecosystems. The course emphasizes biological components and processes, but includes the origin and nature of lake and stream systems and the fundamentals of surface water chemistry and physics. Human influences, management options and current issues will be examined with readings and project work.

BIOL 354 LAB,LEC,TST 0.50

Environmental Toxicology 1

An introduction to the basic theories, principles and techniques of environmental toxicology. A comparative study of the effects of specific groups of toxicants on ecosystems; biodegradation and cycling.

BIOL 355 LEC 0.50

Biology of Human Aging

An overview of current aspects of the biology of human aging and the functional changes associated with both normal aging and pathological problems often present in the elderly. Biological theories of aging and normal age-related structural and physiological changes on all of the major body systems will be discussed. Extrinsic factors such as diet and exercise and their role on the aging process will be examined as well as various medical treatments.

BIOL 359 LEC,TST 0.50

Evolution 1: Mechanisms

A study of the processes of evolution; the differentiation of populations and the origin of new forms of life.

BIOL 360 LEC,TUT 0.50

Evolution 2: Fossil Record

An overview of the origin of life, how it evolved and diversified, modern principles of paleontology with particular emphasis on analytical tools to interpret ancient life forms. Patterns, processes of evolution and paleoecology of key groups of microfossils, invertebrates, plants, vertebrates and their trace fossils.

BIOL 361 LAB,LEC 0.50

Biostatistics and Experimental Design

An introduction to hypothesis testing and experimental design in Biology. Topics will include: exploratory data analysis, analysis of variance, categorical data analysis, correlation, linear regression, multiple linear regression, power analysis, visualization tools and statistical software.

BIOL 364 LAB,LEC 0.50

Mathematical Modelling in Biology

An introduction to the mathematical modelling of biological processes using a variety of techniques including linear difference models, ordinary differential equations, and Markov models. Modelling applications ranging from genetics to ecosystem biology will be addressed.

BIOL 365 LAB,LEC 0.50

Methods in Bioinformatics

This course covers bioinformatics methods with an emphasis on analysis of high-throughput `-omics' data. Topics include analysis of genome-scale gene and protein expression, construction of species and gene trees from molecular sequence data, and analysis of biological systems using bioinformatics tools. Included will be practical experience with bioinformatics tools and datasets.

BIOL 370 LEC 0.50

Comparative Animal Physiology: Environmental Aspects

A comparative study of salt and water balance, circulation, respiratory systems, nitrogenous excretion, and mechanisms of energy acquisition and metabolism in animals. Adaptations to different environments will be emphasized.

BIOL 371 LEC 0.50

Comparative Animal Physiology: Evolutionary Themes

A comparative study of neural, sensory, endocrine, digestive and reproductive strategies across animal taxa. The emphasis will be on evolutionary themes at the organismal, cellular and molecular levels.

BIOL 373 LEC 0.50

Principles of Human Physiology 2

The physiology of major organ systems of the human body. Topics include the central nervous system, the sense organs, the digestive system, the endocrine system, the reproductive system, and the excretory system.

BIOL 373L LAB,TST 0.25

Human Physiology Laboratory

Laboratory exercises to study the principles of human physiology.

BIOL 376 LAB,LEC 0.50

Cellular Neurophysiology

This course gives students background in neuronal signalling, ion channels, and methods in electrophysiological recording methods. The course requires completion of neuro-simulation laboratories, which provide an introduction to biophysical modelling to explain the functions of neural systems.

BIOL 382 LEC,TUT 0.50

Computational Modelling of Cellular Systems

An introduction to dynamic mathematical modelling of cellular processes. The emphasis is on using computational tools to investigate differential equation-based models. A variety of cellular phenomena are discussed, including ion pumps, membrane potentials, intercellular communication, genetic networks, regulation of metabolic pathways, and signal transduction.

BIOL 383 LEC 0.50

Tropical Ecosystems

This course examines the fundamental concepts of terrestrial ecosystems in tropical climates. The course has three sections: (1) biophysical aspects (climate, location, landforms, soil, vegetation), (2) tropical resource systems (forest- and agroecosystems) within the framework of conventional and sustainable resource extraction, and (3) current conservation issues. Case studies are presented.

BIOL 403 LEC 0.50

Advanced Topics in Developmental Biology

This course explores the cellular and molecular basis of developmental phenomena in animals. Lectures will emphasize the experimental basis for both historical and contemporary knowledge with a focus on the major developmental systems in model organisms. Course content will concentrate on themes that permeate current published research.

BIOL 414 LEC,TUT 0.50

Parasitology

This course will explore how parasites affect their host(s) and interact with other parasites. Attention will be given to eukaryotic parasites impacting human and domestic animal health. Public measures of parasite control will be covered.

BIOL 431 LEC 0.50

Bacterial Molecular Genetics

Bacterial molecular biology with an emphasis on the use of genetic tools to study the biology of microorganisms. Topics include mutagenesis, conjugation, recombination, gene regulation, plasmids, transposons, bacteriophage and genomics.

BIOL 432 LEC,TST 0.50

Molecular Biotechnology 2

How recombinant DNA technology is used to produce vaccines, pharmaceuticals, crop plants, and other commercial products will be discussed.

BIOL 433 LEC 0.50

Plant Biotechnology

Biotechnological approaches and their applications in plant genetic manipulation, transformation and cell culture for plant improvement, propagation, and biochemical production.

BIOL 434 LEC,SEM 0.50

Human Molecular Genetics

Recent advances in human molecular genetics will be examined with emphasis on how human disease-causing genes are mapped, identified, isolated and characterized. Examples will draw from research on Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Huntington disease, cystic fibrosis, Alzheimer disease, cancer, vision defects and other disorders.

BIOL 438 LEC,SEM 0.50

Molecular Biology of Animal Development

An examination of the current major issues in the regulation of gene expression during animal development with emphasis on technical and conceptual advances. Current research literature will be reviewed.

BIOL 439 LEC,TUT 0.50

Environmental and Natural Products Biochemistry

This course deals with the functions, distribution and environmental ramifications of natural compounds produced by plants and other biological systems. Natural products are those compounds usually described as secondary metabolites, i.e. those apparently non-essential products whose physiological and ecological functions are either obscure or are of peripheral importance to the organism. However, many of these non-essential products have profound competitive, economic and pharmacological significance; and as research proceeds, their physiological roles within the parent organisms are becoming clearer. As well, this course has a strong emphasis on how environmental chemical and physical processes impact on living organisms and their biochemistry.

BIOL 441 LEC,SEM 0.50

Advances in Immunology

A survey of the recent advances in the vertebrate immune response; the cells and tissues of the lymphoid system; humoral and cell-mediated immunity; initiation and regulation of the immune response; the immune system and disease, emerging techniques used in immunology.

BIOL 442 LAB,LEC 0.50

Virology

A survey of viral structures, life cycles, and the interactions of viruses with their hosts. The laboratory component will include procedures used for viral detection and titration, as well as individual library research projects.

BIOL 443 LAB,LEC 0.50

Fermentation Biotechnology

Biology of industrial micro-organisms: fermentation systems; fermentation raw materials; downstream processing; biomass production; food fermentations; production of industrial chemicals, food additives, enzymes and other products by fermentation.

BIOL 444 LAB,LEC 0.50

Bacterial Pathogenesis

A study of the bacteria involved in pathogenesis, their mode of infection, symptoms and prevention of diseases. The laboratory will focus on identification of bacterial isolates.

BIOL 447 LEC,TUT 0.50

Environmental Microbiology

A study of the environmental impact of microorganisms. Aspects of pollution, waste treatment, biodegradation of environmental contaminants, and nutrient cycling will be examined.

BIOL 448 LAB,LEC 0.50

Microbial Physiology and Biochemistry

A study of the physiology of microorganisms. Provides biochemical and molecular level detail on the diverse structures and metabolic functions of bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryal cells. Aspects of microbial growth, nutrition and metabolism are examined in the context of how microorganisms develop diverse solutions for meeting essential requirements for life.

BIOL 449 LEC 0.50

Public Health Microbiology

How the health of human populations is influenced by microbial communities. Aspects of the epidemiology of infectious diseases, factors influencing the emergence of microbial pathogens and antibiotic-resistant strains, means to control undesired microbial populations in habitats such as water, biodegradable materials and food will be discussed. Approaches to the regulation and monitoring of microbial agents will also be examined.

BIOL 450 LEC,SEM 0.50

Marine Biology

Ecological processes and evolutionary adaptation are explored in the world's largest and most diverse ecosystems. The major ocean habitats will be characterized, stressing their importance as resources, moderators of climate and reservoirs of biodiversity.

BIOL 451 LEC,SEM 0.50

Advanced Ecology and Evolution

Students will use scientific literature to explore and analyze a range of advanced topics in ecology and evolution at the individual, population, community, and ecosystem scales. Recent advances in understanding of fundamental concepts as well as current frontiers in the field will be examined through written reports, essays, and oral presentations.

BIOL 452 LEC 0.50

Quantitative Fisheries Biology

The practices of fisheries science including the effects of industrial fisheries on fish stocks, methods of capture, obtaining, using and interpretation of vital statistics of fish stocks, population estimation, stock-recruitment, growth, mortality and fecundity. Emphasis is placed on the use of statistical information for making ecological inferences about the status of fish populations. Familiarity with linear regression is essential.

BIOL 455 LEC,TUT 0.50

Ecological Risk Assessment and Management

Examination of the use of scientific information characterizing the risks posed to the environment by anthropogenic stresses. Discussions will take place in the context of aquatic ecology and presume a background of standard aquatic toxicology methods. Methods for assessing risks, including environmental impact assessment, risk quotients, national and international risk assessment paradigms, and cumulative effects assessment will be examined. Critical connections between assessment and management will also be discussed.

BIOL 457 LEC,TUT 0.50

Analysis of Communities

A study of the organization, structure and development of communities with emphasis on vegetation change. Topics include: diversity, stability; succession; sampling procedures and multivariate analysis.

BIOL 458 LAB,LEC 0.50

Quantitative Ecology

The course addresses the integration of mathematical and statistical tools to solve problems in ecology, using examples from individual, population, community, and ecosystem scales. Coursework will explore the relationships between models, hypotheses, experiments and data.

BIOL 461 LEC 0.50

Advanced Biostatistics

Advanced aspects of statistics and experimental design for biologists. Topics will include analysis of variance (factorial, hierarchical and blocking designs; fixed- and random-effects models); a-priori and a-posteriori comparisons; multivariate analysis of variance; analysis of covariance; multiple linear regression; multivariate statistics (indirect and direct gradient analysis).

BIOL 462 LEC,TUT 0.50

Applied Wetland Science

Advanced concepts on wetland ecosystems in the context of regional and global earth systems processes such as carbon and nitrogen cycling and climate change, applications of wetland paleoecology, use of isotopes and other geochemical tools in wetland science, and wetland engineering in landscape rehabilitation and ecotechnology. Current issues in Canada and abroad will be examined.

BIOL 465 LEC,TUT 0.50

Structural Bioinformatics

Functional and structural analysis of proteins using bioinformatics tools. Topics include protein structure visualization, structure comparison and prediction, prediction of protein function and interactions, molecular dynamics, and protein design.

BIOL 469 LAB,LEC 0.50

Genomics

An applied course on the computational exploration of genomes. Topics include comparative and evolutionary genomics, metagenomics, and genomics applications in health/medicine. The lab will involve analysis of genomic datasets using scripting and bioinformatic software.

BIOL 470 LAB,TUT 0.50

Methods of Aquatic Ecology

An introduction to methods used to sample and characterize the ecological structure and function of aquatic ecosystems, including basic aspects of the abiotic environment. Field trips to lake and stream sites are combined with laboratory analysis of samples and data. While the main emphasis is on the techniques, the exercises also provide direct experience with some of the natural and anthropogenic variation observable in aquatic systems.

BIOL 472 LEC 0.50

Cell Biology of Human Disease

This course focuses on the nature and mechanisms of disease processes. Abnormalities in the structure and function of cells, tissues and organs that underlie disease are explored. Emphasis is placed on current research aimed at understanding the mechanisms of disease and disease therapy, covering topics including inherited disorders, cellular pathology and immunology, diabetes and cancer.

BIOL 473 LAB,LEC 0.50

Mammalian Reproduction

This course will provide an in-depth coverage of reproductive biology in a range of mammalian species. Emphasis will be on the principles underlying the regulation of key reproductive processes, from the whole animal to the molecular level. Topics will include applications of these principles to human and veterinary medicine, and ethical problems posed by some reproductive technologies.

BIOL 475 LEC 0.50

Current Topics in Microbiology

Students will explore and analyze a variety of often controversial topics in microbiology as reflected in popular culture and the current scientific literature. This course involves significant in-class group work. An essay and presentations are required.

BIOL 476 LEC 0.50

Systems Neuroscience: From Neurons to Behaviour

Systems neuroscience attempts to explain complex functions of the nervous system in terms of underlying neural circuits. The course focuses on how neural circuits analyze sensory information, form perceptions, make decisions, and execute movements, as well as contribute to high-level mental functions such as language, memory, and self-awareness.

BIOL 477L LAB,TUT 0.50

Techniques in Animal Physiology

Laboratory exercises and computer-based data collection to study the functions of the cardiovascular, respiratory, nervous, digestive and excretory systems of vertebrates and invertebrate animals. Students will learn animal handling techniques, data collection with state of the art physiological equipment and data analysis using computer software. Tutorials will allow students to investigate and discuss current animal physiology research topics in greater detail.

BIOL 479 LEC 0.50

Population Genetics and Evolution

This course provides an overview of the interplay among mutation, random and non-random mating, genetic drift, gene flow and selection within and among natural populations. Special emphasis is placed on the dynamic role these factors play in the process of population divergence, and ultimately speciation. Case studies will illustrate the application of population genetic methodology in fields such as ecology, conservation biology, and forensic sciences.

BIOL 483 LEC 0.50

Animal Cell Biotechnology

A study of the techniques and applications of animal cell culture to biotechnology. Topics include basic cell culture technique, gene modification, products of animal cell culture, large-scale productions, and tissue engineering.

BIOL 484 LEC,TUT 0.50

Advanced Eukaryotic Genetics

The role of classical genetic analysis in the context of today's genomic era. Topics: meiotic recombination, meiosis, complementation analysis, chromosome aberrations, and genetic interactions. Methods used in model eukaryotic genetic organisms such as forward and reverse genetic screens, genetic mosaics, conditional mutants, and genetic mapping will be discussed. Examples will illustrate how genes continue to be identified using classical-based approaches in a variety of biological processes, including cell cycle progression, cancer and metastasis, learning and memory, as well as pattern formation and embryonic development. Alternatives to traditional mutagenesis-based screens and the links between classical and molecular genetics will also be discussed.

BIOL 485 LEC 0.50

Conservation Biology

An introduction to conservation biology and the ongoing biodiversity crisis. Topics will include the history of conservation biology and impacts on populations, communities, and ecosystems.

BIOL 487 LEC,TUT 0.50

Computational Neuroscience

Introduction to quantitative principles in the analysis of neurophysiological systems. Biophysics of excitable membranes. Encoding of sensory information in neural spiking activity. Bayesian models in perception and motor control. Models of synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory.

BIOL 489 LEC 0.50

Arctic Ecology

This course explores the unique ecology of Arctic and sub-Arctic ecosystems. Topics addressed will include postglacial history, climate, permafrost, nutrient cycling and food web structure of terrestrial, marine, and freshwater systems, plant and animal adaptations to cold, human ecology, traditional ecological knowledge, climate change, resource extraction, and other human impacts.